let species = [{"Nid":"792","name":"Australopithecus afarensis","From_Time":"-2950000","To_Time":"-3850000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania)","year_discovered":"1974-01-01","summary":"

Australopithecus afarensis<\/em> is one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species\u2014paleoanthropologists have uncovered remains from more than 300 individuals! Found between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania), this species survived for more than 900,000 years, which is over four times as long as our own species has been around. It is best known from the sites of Hadar, Ethiopia (\u2018Lucy\u2019, AL 288-1 and the 'First Family', AL 333); Dikika, Ethiopia (Dikika \u2018child\u2019 skeleton); and Laetoli (fossils of this species plus the oldest documented bipedal footprint trails).<\/p>\r\n\r\n

Similar to chimpanzees, Au. afarensis<\/em> children grew rapidly after birth and reached adulthood earlier than modern humans. This meant Au. afarensis<\/em> had a shorter period of growing up than modern humans have today, leaving them less time for parental guidance and socialization during childhood.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

Au. afarensis<\/em> had both ape and human characteristics: members of this species had apelike face proportions (a flat nose, a strongly projecting lower jaw) and braincase (with a small brain, usually less than 500 cubic centimeters -- about 1\/3 the size of a modern human brain), and long, strong arms with curved fingers adapted for climbing trees. They also had small canine teeth like all other early humans, and a body that stood on two legs and regularly walked upright. Their adaptations for living both in the trees and on the ground helped them survive for almost a million years as climate and environments changed.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"Between about 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/afarensis_JG_Recon_Head_CC_3qtr_lt_sq.jpg.webp?itok=2o32Mgum","row":"289"},{"Nid":"793","name":"Sahelanthropus tchadensis","From_Time":"-6000000","To_Time":"-7000000","geographic_range":"West-Central Africa (Chad)","year_discovered":"2001-01-01","summary":"

Sahelanthropus tchadensis<\/em> is one of the oldest known species in the human family tree. This species lived sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago in West-Central Africa (Chad). Walking upright may have helped this species survive in diverse habitats, including forests and grasslands. Although we have only cranial material from Sahelanthropus<\/em>, studies so far show this species had a combination of ape-like and human-like features. Ape-like features included a small brain (even slightly smaller than a chimpanzee\u2019s), sloping face, very prominent browridges, and elongated skull. Human-like features included small canine teeth, a short middle part of the face, and a spinal cord opening underneath the skull instead of towards the back as seen in non-bipedal apes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

How do we know Sahelanthropus <\/em>walked upright?<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Some of the oldest evidence of a humanlike species moving about in an upright position comes from Sahelanthropus<\/em>. The foramen magnum (the large opening where the spinal cord exits out of the cranium from the brain) is located further forward (on the underside of the cranium) than in apes or any other primate except humans. This feature indicates that the head of Sahelanthropus<\/em> was held on an upright body, probably associated with walking on two legs.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"Sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/S_tchadensis_front_sq_DH.jpg.webp?itok=7KOu6zod","row":"289"},{"Nid":"995","name":"Ardipithecus kadabba","From_Time":"-5200000","To_Time":"-5800000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia)","year_discovered":"1997-01-01","summary":"

Ardipithecus kadabba<\/em> was bipedal (walked upright), probably similar in body and brain size to a modern chimpanzee, and had canines that resemble those in later hominins but that still project beyond the tooth row. This early human species is only known in the fossil record by a few post-cranial bones and sets of teeth. One bone from the large toe has a broad, robust appearance, suggesting its use in bipedal push-off.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"Between about 5.8 and 5.2 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/common_ancestor_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=TGZzFFyS","row":"340"},{"Nid":"997","name":"Ardipithecus ramidus","From_Time":"-4300000","To_Time":"-4500000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Middle Awash and Gona, Ethiopia)","year_discovered":"1994-01-01","summary":"

Ardipithecus ramidus<\/em> was first reported in 1994; in 2009, scientists announced a partial skeleton, nicknamed \u2018Ardi\u2019. The foot bones in this skeleton indicate a divergent large toe combined with a rigid foot \u2013 it's still unclear what this means concerning bipedal behavior. The pelvis, reconstructed from a crushed specimen, is said to show adaptations that combine tree-climbing and bipedal activity. The discoverers argue that the \u2018Ardi\u2019 skeleton reflects a human-African ape common ancestor that was not chimpanzee-like. A good sample of canine teeth of this species indicates very little difference in size between males and females in this species.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

Ardi\u2019s fossils were found alongside faunal remains indicating she lived in a wooded environment. This contradicts the open savanna theory for the origin of bipedalism, which states that humans learned to walk upright as climates became drier and environments became more open and grassy.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 4.4 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/ramidus_illustration_KC_sq.jpg.webp?itok=Dh4WMl96","row":"364"},{"Nid":"1147","name":"Orrorin tugenensis","From_Time":"-5800000","To_Time":"-6200000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Tugen Hills, central Kenya)","year_discovered":"2001-01-01","summary":"

Living around 6 million years ago, Orrorin tugenensis <\/em>is the one of the oldest early humans on our family tree. Individuals of this species were approximately the size of a chimpanzee and had small teeth with thick enamel, similar to modern humans. The most important fossil of this species is an upper femur, showing evidence of bone buildup typical of a biped - so Orrorin tugenensis <\/em>individuals climbed trees but also probably walked upright with two legs on the ground.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"Sometime between 6.2 and 5.8 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/common_ancestor_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=TGZzFFyS","row":"314"},{"Nid":"1149","name":"Australopithecus anamensis","From_Time":"-3800000","To_Time":"-4200000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Lake Turkana, Kenya and Middle Awash, Ethiopia)","year_discovered":"1995-01-01","summary":"

Australopithecus anamensis<\/em> has a combination of traits found in both apes and humans. The upper end of the tibia (shin bone) shows an expanded area of bone and a human-like orientation of the ankle joint, indicative of regular bipedal walking (support of body weight on one leg at the time). Long forearms and features of the wrist bones suggest these individuals probably climbed trees as well. The cranium combines some more ancestral features, such as a protruding face and a long and narrow braincase, with some more derived features, such as forwardly projecting cheekbones similar to Paranthropus<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 4.2 to 3.8 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/common_ancestor_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=TGZzFFyS","row":"314"},{"Nid":"1151","name":"Australopithecus garhi","From_Time":"-2400000","To_Time":"-2600000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (the site of Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia)","year_discovered":"1990-01-01","summary":"

This species is not well documented; it is defined on the basis of one fossil cranium and four other skull fragments, although a partial skeleton found nearby, from about the same layer, is usually included as part of the Australopithecus garhi<\/em> sample. The associated fragmentary skeleton indicates a longer femur (compared to other Australopithecus<\/em> specimens, like \u2018Lucy\u2019) even though long, powerful arms were maintained. This suggests a change toward longer strides during bipedal walking.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 2.5 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/common_ancestor_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=TGZzFFyS","row":"364"},{"Nid":"1154","name":"Paranthropus aethiopicus","From_Time":"-2300000","To_Time":"-2700000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (Turkana basin of northern Kenya, southern Ethiopia)","year_discovered":null,"summary":"

Paranthropus aethiopicus <\/em>is still much of a mystery to paleoanthropologists, as very few remains of this species have been found.<\/em> The discovery of the 2.5 million year old \u2019Black Skull\u2019 in 1985 helped define this species as the earliest known robust australopithecine. P. aethiopicus<\/em> has a strongly protruding face, large megadont teeth, a powerful jaw, and a well-developed sagittal crest on top of skull, indicating huge chewing muscles, with a strong emphasis on the muscles that connected toward the back of the crest and created strong chewing forces on the front teeth.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 2.7 to 2.3 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/aethiopicus_illustration_KC_sq.jpg.webp?itok=DKmGo-ql","row":"314"},{"Nid":"1155","name":"Homo rudolfensis","From_Time":"-1800000","To_Time":"-1900000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (northern Kenya, possibly northern Tanzania and Malawi) ","year_discovered":"1986-01-01","summary":"

There is only one really good fossil of this Homo rudolfensis<\/em>: KNM-ER 1470<\/a>, from Koobi Fora in the Lake Turkana basin, Kenya. It has one really critical feature: a braincase size of 775 cubic centimeters, which is considerably above the upper end of H. habilis<\/em> braincase size. At least one other braincase from the same region also shows such a large cranial capacity. <\/p>\r\n\r\n

Originally considered to be H. habilis<\/em>, the ways in which H. rudolfensis<\/em> differs is in its larger braincase, longer face, and larger molar and premolar teeth. Due to the last two features, though, some scientists still wonder whether this species might better be considered an Australopithecus<\/em>, although one with a large brain!<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 1.9 million to 1.8 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/rudolfensis_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=FKTWrGpa","row":"340"},{"Nid":"1205","name":"Australopithecus africanus","From_Time":"-2100000","To_Time":"-3300000","geographic_range":"Southern Africa (South Africa)","year_discovered":"1924-01-01","summary":"

Au. africanus <\/em>was anatomically similar to Au. afarensis<\/em>, with a combination of human-like and ape-like features. Compared to Au. afarensis<\/em>, Au. africanus<\/em> had <\/em>a rounder cranium housing a larger brain and smaller teeth, but it also had some ape-like features including relatively long arms and a strongly sloping face that juts out from underneath the braincase with a pronounced jaw. Like Au. afarensis<\/em>, the pelvis, femur (upper leg), and foot bones of Au. africanus <\/em>indicate that it walked bipedally, but its shoulder and hand bones indicate they were also adapted for climbing,<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 3.3 to 2.1 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/africanus_JG_Recon_head_CC_f_sq.jpg.webp?itok=eBpDvQFO","row":"340"},{"Nid":"1206","name":"Homo habilis","From_Time":"-1650000","To_Time":"-2400000","geographic_range":"Eastern and Southern Africa","year_discovered":"1960-01-01","summary":"

This species, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo<\/em>, has a s<\/em>lightly larger braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus<\/em> or older hominin species. But it still retains some ape-like features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

Its name, which means \u2018handy man\u2019, was given in 1964 because this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"2.4 million to 1.4 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/habilis_illustration_kc_head_s.jpg.webp?itok=wAVKPjVM","row":"390"},{"Nid":"1207","name":"Kenyanthropus platyops","From_Time":"-3500000","To_Time":"-3600000","geographic_range":"Eastern Africa (West Turkana, Kenya)","year_discovered":"1999-01-01","summary":"

Very little is known about Kenyanthropus platyops<\/em>\u2014a flat-faced, small-brained, bipedal species living about 3.5 million years ago in Kenya. Kenyanthropus <\/em>inhabited Africa at the same time as Lucy\u2019s species Australopithecus afarensis, <\/em>and could represent a closer branch to modern humans than Lucy\u2019s on the evolutionary tree. Before the discovery of the only known skull of this species <\/em>in 1999, the earliest fossil evidence known for a flat-faced early human, a significant shift in skull structure, was around 2 million years ago.<\/p>\r\n","Time_Range":"About 3.5 million years ago","image":"http:\/\/humanorigins.si.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/styles\/media_library\/public\/images\/square\/common_ancestor_illustration_kc_head_sq.jpg.webp?itok=TGZzFFyS","row":"390"},{"Nid":"1208","name":"Homo floresiensis","From_Time":"-50000","To_Time":"-700000","geographic_range":"Asia (Indonesia)","year_discovered":"2003-01-01","summary":"

Remains of one of the most recently discovered early human species, Homo floresiensis<\/em> (nicknamed \u2018Hobbit\u2019), have so far only been found on the Island of Flores, Indonesia. The fossils of H. floresiensis<\/em> date to between about 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, and stone tools made by this species date to between about 190,000 and 50,000 years old. H. floresiensis <\/em>individuals stood approximately 3 feet 6 inches tall, had tiny brains, large teeth for their small size, shrugged-forward shoulders, no chins, receding foreheads, and relatively large feet due to their short legs. Despite their small body and brain size, H. floresiensis<\/em> made and used stone tools, hunted small elephants and large rodents, coped with predators such as giant Komodo dragons, and may have used fire. <\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/p>\r\n\r\n

The diminutive stature and small brain of H. floresiensis<\/em> may have resulted from island dwarfism\u2014an evolutionary process that results from long-term isolation on a small island with limited food resources and a lack of predators. Pygmy elephants on Flores, now extinct, showed the same adaptation. The smallest known species of Homo<\/em> and Stegodon<\/em> elephant are both found on the island of Flores, Indonesia. However, some scientists are now considering the possibility that the ancestors of H. floresiensis<\/em> may have been small when they first reached Flores.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/p>\r\n\r\n

One of our own scientists, Dr. Matt Tocheri<\/a>, does research on this enigmatic early human species; read more about this work, and watch a video about it on this page<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n